Psychology and Impact Personality Development

1. Define personality. 2. Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. 3. Discuss social and cultural contributions to personality development. 4. Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. 5. Describe the major process theories of personality. 6. Evaluate the major personality theories. 7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of commonly used personality assessment techniques, validity, reliability. Define personality. Personality Is a unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel and behave * Is shaped by biological, situational, and mental processes in a sociocultural and development context * Impacts people’s cognition, motivation and behaviour Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. Biological * A person’s temperament results from 4 humours (ancient theory) * Blood from heart – sanguine cheerful * Choler from liver- choleric angry * Mel ancholer from spleen – melancholy depressed * Phlegm from brain- phlegmatic sluggish Frontal lobes regulates one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality. * Kagan’s research on inherited basis of shyness on new borns * Excitable and inhibited infants became shy and introverted * Less excitable and bold infants became extraverted * â€Å"push of nature in different directions† Situational * Environment affects us through operant and classical conditioning * (1) Physical Environment It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. * (2) Social Environment * The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child. * E. g. one would play with an outgoing chi ld more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * (3) Family Environment * Child comes in contact with his parents and other family member. His likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences play an important role in the development of personality. * Besides this, economic factors i. e. , economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. * (4) Cultural Environment * Individualism in westerners vs collectivism in Africa caused by environment * Striking difference in the universal trait of shyness caused by how each culture dealt with the child’s success and failures. Who gets credit for good grades, gets blamed for not getting them? Childcautious, low risk taker * (5) School Environment * In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. * The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification Mental Processes * 3 kinds of process theories: * Psychodynamic/ psychoanalysis- * motivation, especially unconscious motives and the influence of past experiences on out mental health * Humanistic- consciousness and our present, subjective reality: what we think is ipt now and how we think of ourselves in relation to others * Cognitive- * Influence of learning, perception and social interaction on behaviour Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. Dispositional theories suggest temperaments, traits or types (set of personality characteristics) provide consistency to individual’s personality over time. Temperament * Biologically based personality dispositions * Apparent in early childhood, Establish foundation of personality & individual’s approach to life * Inherited temperament may set the range of your response to some life si tuation but it does not fully determine your life experiences * Affected also by family position, experiences, and sense of self * Usually refers to dominant long standing themes eg shyness/moodiness * Role of frontal lobes in regulating one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Influenced by learning * Heredity and environment interact with initially inherited characteristics becoming amplified * E. . one would play with an outgoing child more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * E. g. observational learning Traits * Emerge from temperaments and influenced by experiences * Guides thoughts and actions under various conditions * Relatively stable * BIG 5 Traits * Openness to experience, Conscientious, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism * Has validity across cultures (but most of these studies utilized university students as respondents who are more influenced by European-American vi ews * Quite accurate Labels a person but gives no explanation on why Evaluation of Trait Theories XPortrayed personality as fixed and static rather than a process that can undergo development changes depending on experiences Xoversimplified our complex nature XDo not tell much about their source or how traits interacts X SELF-FULFILLING prophecy where ppl become influenced by the labels and it became hard for them to change the undesirable behaviour. E. g. a child labelled shy will have to struggle w both the label and the traits * Gives us ability to predict behaviour Assessing traits * Using: * MMPI-2 for clinical traits base on mental problems * Not possible to fake due to lie scales * Must be used w care in non-Western countries/ minorities cos not well represented in the samples used in developing the test * NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI) base on big 5 * Both have excellent reliability (consistent and stable scores) * Both have good validity (measure what they were designed to measure eg signs of mental disturbance) * Barnum effects: tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate * descriptions can well apply to others * reliability and validity are important attributes of good psychological tests * Finding personality type * Category that represents a common cluster of personality characteristics * MBTI – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator * Not reliable, not valid * Ppl don’t fall into different types but more along the introversion-extraversion continuum Describe the major process theories of personality.While each of the process theories sees different forces at work in personality, all portray personality as a result of internal mental processes and social interactions. Psychodynamic theories 1. Sigmund Freud psychodynamic approach * focus is on influence of unconscious forces (psychic determinism) difficult to prove * Personality is a function of 3 main themes: unconscious forces, childhood experiences, sex * Not scientific, hindsight bias ( overemphasis on childhood ), unconscious mind is not that malign and turbulent * Structure of personality Id * Unconscious reservoir * contains basic motives, drives and instinctive desires * pushes for immediate gratification * Ego * Governed by reality principle * Decision making component * Mediator btw Id and reality * Superego * Governed by morality and social standards (conscience) * An individual’s view of the kind of person he or she should strive to become * Psychosexual stages * Ego defence mechanism- largely unconscious mental strategy employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety * Denial – I don’t have a problem Rationalization- I cheat because everyone does it – give socially accepted reasons for actions one think is socially unacceptable * Reaction formulation – goodie goodie act in opposite of their desire- act exactly in opposition to their unconscious desires * Displacement- kick the dog- shifting your reaction from real source of distress to a safer individual or object * Regression- cry, throw things to reduce stress- regress to earlier developmental stage * Sublimation- channel negative to positive eg sexual desires to creativity on art * Projection- attribute own unconscious desires/fears to others * Led to projective testing 2. Adler Struggle with sexual and hostile impulses not primary factor in personality development * Primary struggle: overcome inferiority feelings, develop superiority feelings in social relationships (later seen as unhealthy due to overcompensation) * Outgrow childhood inferiority, become competent adult * All born with positive motive, social interest * People’s lives governed by their goals 3. Karen Horney * Freud overemphasized sexual conflicts, penis envy, and criticized his views of women * When basic anxiety gets out of control, people become neurotic (basic desires taken to extreme eg nee d for a partner) * Ways people deal with basic anxiety: * Move towards others, against others, away from others 4. Other Neo-Freudian Theorists: * Accepted notions of psychic determinism and unconscious motivation * Did not agree on sex and death instinct or the indelible nature of early life experiences. Put greater emphasis on ego functions (ego defence,dev of self instead of on unconsciousness) * Gave social variables an impt role (culture, family instead of instinctive urges, unconscious conflicts) * Extended personality development to include lifespan (instead of only childhood) Projective testing: Diagnosis via a defense mechanism * Ambiguous pictures to probe people’s innermost feelings, motive, conflicts, and desires * E. g. Rorschach Inkblot Technique- not objective * E. g. Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)- ambiguous picture n tell story * Theme: aggression, sexual needs, rs Humanistic Perspective Main Theoretical tenants: 1) Humans have an innate drive for personal g rowth ) Humans have free will; not controlled by the environment 3) Humans are conscious and rational; not controlled by unconscious forces 4) One’s subjective view is more important than objective reality * Abraham Maslow ‘s needs hierarchy * Interested in healthy human psychology * Criticisms: Not testable, Unrealistic, Method, Culture-specific * Carl Rogers’ Person-Centred Theory * Believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize * To achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. * Difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. * The larger the discrepancies between the two, the more psychological problems one experiences * Development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. * As we prefer to see ourselves i n ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defence mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. * Evaluation: * Self centered picture of personality, looking through the lens of individualistic culture * But even in collectivism, self exists * Self-esteem, a cause or effect? Bullies and drug users actually have high self esteem * Emphasis on positive achievements and pro-social behaviours * Fails to recognize its function in a world filled with evil of all kinds Social Cognitive theories: Social Learning * Cognitive learning which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour * Expectation of gaining reward drives us to acquire that response * We reject or accept the role model base on consequences of their actions * Reciprocal determinism is the process which cognitions, behaviour and the environment mutually influence each other * Jane likes vb (cognition), spends more time playing on campus (env) and interacting w teammates (social behaviour) rewardingthis activity will reciprocally strengthen your interest in vb. Locus of control Rotter’s theory: our behaviour depends on our locus of control * Changes from situation to situation * Internal locus of control * Good student, smart and have good grades internal in academic settings * External locus of control * Overweight and come from a family w obesity external in restaurants. Evaluation * Overemphasize rational information processing and overlook both emotion and unconscious processes * Strength lies in foundation of solid psychological research able to come up with treatments for mental disorders that often seem to involve observational learning esp anxiety- based disorders (phobias and behaviour disorders in children) Behavioural Operant and Classical conditioning ) In classical, the organism learns an association between two stimuli (the N S and UCS); in operant, the organism learns an association between the behaviour and its consequences 2) In classical, the behaviour is elicited by the stimulus (not voluntary, like a reflex); in operant, the behaviour is emitted (under the control of the organism) * Pavlov’s classical conditioning * Chrissy’s sleepover case * B. F Skinner’s Operant conditioning * Positive reinforcement & Negative reinforcement (remove negative stimuli) strengthens response, * Punishment (give unpleasant stimuli) weakens response * Behaviour is determined by situations one is in (situationism) * People behave in ways to suit their situations Behaviours cannot be consistent enough to be traits because situations change * Solution: behaviours influenced by both person and situation (person X situation interactionism) * One situation influences people in different ways Theories to understand ourselves 1. Implicit personality theories a. Assumptions about personality used to simplif y the task of understanding others, eg. Blondes are not smart b. May give bad predictions when one project his feelings onto others and assume he’s feeling the same way c. Mindset 2. Self-narratives d. Help ppl sense a thread of consistency through their personalities over time e. Redemptive self: where one overcome obstacles to help others 3. Both theories are influenced by culture Psychology and Impact Personality Development 1. Define personality. 2. Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. 3. Discuss social and cultural contributions to personality development. 4. Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. 5. Describe the major process theories of personality. 6. Evaluate the major personality theories. 7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of commonly used personality assessment techniques, validity, reliability. Define personality. Personality Is a unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel and behave * Is shaped by biological, situational, and mental processes in a sociocultural and development context * Impacts people’s cognition, motivation and behaviour Analyze how biological, situational and mental processes impact personality development. Biological * A person’s temperament results from 4 humours (ancient theory) * Blood from heart – sanguine cheerful * Choler from liver- choleric angry * Mel ancholer from spleen – melancholy depressed * Phlegm from brain- phlegmatic sluggish Frontal lobes regulates one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality. * Kagan’s research on inherited basis of shyness on new borns * Excitable and inhibited infants became shy and introverted * Less excitable and bold infants became extraverted * â€Å"push of nature in different directions† Situational * Environment affects us through operant and classical conditioning * (1) Physical Environment It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. * (2) Social Environment * The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child. * E. g. one would play with an outgoing chi ld more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * (3) Family Environment * Child comes in contact with his parents and other family member. His likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences play an important role in the development of personality. * Besides this, economic factors i. e. , economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. * (4) Cultural Environment * Individualism in westerners vs collectivism in Africa caused by environment * Striking difference in the universal trait of shyness caused by how each culture dealt with the child’s success and failures. Who gets credit for good grades, gets blamed for not getting them? Childcautious, low risk taker * (5) School Environment * In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. * The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification Mental Processes * 3 kinds of process theories: * Psychodynamic/ psychoanalysis- * motivation, especially unconscious motives and the influence of past experiences on out mental health * Humanistic- consciousness and our present, subjective reality: what we think is ipt now and how we think of ourselves in relation to others * Cognitive- * Influence of learning, perception and social interaction on behaviour Describe the major dispositional theories of personality. Dispositional theories suggest temperaments, traits or types (set of personality characteristics) provide consistency to individual’s personality over time. Temperament * Biologically based personality dispositions * Apparent in early childhood, Establish foundation of personality & individual’s approach to life * Inherited temperament may set the range of your response to some life si tuation but it does not fully determine your life experiences * Affected also by family position, experiences, and sense of self * Usually refers to dominant long standing themes eg shyness/moodiness * Role of frontal lobes in regulating one’s basic disposition * Individual differences in temperament arise from balance of neurotransmitters * Influenced by learning * Heredity and environment interact with initially inherited characteristics becoming amplified * E. . one would play with an outgoing child more than an inhibited one pushes inhibited child towards shyness * E. g. observational learning Traits * Emerge from temperaments and influenced by experiences * Guides thoughts and actions under various conditions * Relatively stable * BIG 5 Traits * Openness to experience, Conscientious, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism * Has validity across cultures (but most of these studies utilized university students as respondents who are more influenced by European-American vi ews * Quite accurate Labels a person but gives no explanation on why Evaluation of Trait Theories XPortrayed personality as fixed and static rather than a process that can undergo development changes depending on experiences Xoversimplified our complex nature XDo not tell much about their source or how traits interacts X SELF-FULFILLING prophecy where ppl become influenced by the labels and it became hard for them to change the undesirable behaviour. E. g. a child labelled shy will have to struggle w both the label and the traits * Gives us ability to predict behaviour Assessing traits * Using: * MMPI-2 for clinical traits base on mental problems * Not possible to fake due to lie scales * Must be used w care in non-Western countries/ minorities cos not well represented in the samples used in developing the test * NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI) base on big 5 * Both have excellent reliability (consistent and stable scores) * Both have good validity (measure what they were designed to measure eg signs of mental disturbance) * Barnum effects: tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate * descriptions can well apply to others * reliability and validity are important attributes of good psychological tests * Finding personality type * Category that represents a common cluster of personality characteristics * MBTI – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator * Not reliable, not valid * Ppl don’t fall into different types but more along the introversion-extraversion continuum Describe the major process theories of personality.While each of the process theories sees different forces at work in personality, all portray personality as a result of internal mental processes and social interactions. Psychodynamic theories 1. Sigmund Freud psychodynamic approach * focus is on influence of unconscious forces (psychic determinism) difficult to prove * Personality is a function of 3 main themes: unconscious forces, childhood experiences, sex * Not scientific, hindsight bias ( overemphasis on childhood ), unconscious mind is not that malign and turbulent * Structure of personality Id * Unconscious reservoir * contains basic motives, drives and instinctive desires * pushes for immediate gratification * Ego * Governed by reality principle * Decision making component * Mediator btw Id and reality * Superego * Governed by morality and social standards (conscience) * An individual’s view of the kind of person he or she should strive to become * Psychosexual stages * Ego defence mechanism- largely unconscious mental strategy employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety * Denial – I don’t have a problem Rationalization- I cheat because everyone does it – give socially accepted reasons for actions one think is socially unacceptable * Reaction formulation – goodie goodie act in opposite of their desire- act exactly in opposition to their unconscious desires * Displacement- kick the dog- shifting your reaction from real source of distress to a safer individual or object * Regression- cry, throw things to reduce stress- regress to earlier developmental stage * Sublimation- channel negative to positive eg sexual desires to creativity on art * Projection- attribute own unconscious desires/fears to others * Led to projective testing 2. Adler Struggle with sexual and hostile impulses not primary factor in personality development * Primary struggle: overcome inferiority feelings, develop superiority feelings in social relationships (later seen as unhealthy due to overcompensation) * Outgrow childhood inferiority, become competent adult * All born with positive motive, social interest * People’s lives governed by their goals 3. Karen Horney * Freud overemphasized sexual conflicts, penis envy, and criticized his views of women * When basic anxiety gets out of control, people become neurotic (basic desires taken to extreme eg nee d for a partner) * Ways people deal with basic anxiety: * Move towards others, against others, away from others 4. Other Neo-Freudian Theorists: * Accepted notions of psychic determinism and unconscious motivation * Did not agree on sex and death instinct or the indelible nature of early life experiences. Put greater emphasis on ego functions (ego defence,dev of self instead of on unconsciousness) * Gave social variables an impt role (culture, family instead of instinctive urges, unconscious conflicts) * Extended personality development to include lifespan (instead of only childhood) Projective testing: Diagnosis via a defense mechanism * Ambiguous pictures to probe people’s innermost feelings, motive, conflicts, and desires * E. g. Rorschach Inkblot Technique- not objective * E. g. Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)- ambiguous picture n tell story * Theme: aggression, sexual needs, rs Humanistic Perspective Main Theoretical tenants: 1) Humans have an innate drive for personal g rowth ) Humans have free will; not controlled by the environment 3) Humans are conscious and rational; not controlled by unconscious forces 4) One’s subjective view is more important than objective reality * Abraham Maslow ‘s needs hierarchy * Interested in healthy human psychology * Criticisms: Not testable, Unrealistic, Method, Culture-specific * Carl Rogers’ Person-Centred Theory * Believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize * To achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. * Difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. * The larger the discrepancies between the two, the more psychological problems one experiences * Development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. * As we prefer to see ourselves i n ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defence mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. * Evaluation: * Self centered picture of personality, looking through the lens of individualistic culture * But even in collectivism, self exists * Self-esteem, a cause or effect? Bullies and drug users actually have high self esteem * Emphasis on positive achievements and pro-social behaviours * Fails to recognize its function in a world filled with evil of all kinds Social Cognitive theories: Social Learning * Cognitive learning which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour * Expectation of gaining reward drives us to acquire that response * We reject or accept the role model base on consequences of their actions * Reciprocal determinism is the process which cognitions, behaviour and the environment mutually influence each other * Jane likes vb (cognition), spends more time playing on campus (env) and interacting w teammates (social behaviour) rewardingthis activity will reciprocally strengthen your interest in vb. Locus of control Rotter’s theory: our behaviour depends on our locus of control * Changes from situation to situation * Internal locus of control * Good student, smart and have good grades internal in academic settings * External locus of control * Overweight and come from a family w obesity external in restaurants. Evaluation * Overemphasize rational information processing and overlook both emotion and unconscious processes * Strength lies in foundation of solid psychological research able to come up with treatments for mental disorders that often seem to involve observational learning esp anxiety- based disorders (phobias and behaviour disorders in children) Behavioural Operant and Classical conditioning ) In classical, the organism learns an association between two stimuli (the N S and UCS); in operant, the organism learns an association between the behaviour and its consequences 2) In classical, the behaviour is elicited by the stimulus (not voluntary, like a reflex); in operant, the behaviour is emitted (under the control of the organism) * Pavlov’s classical conditioning * Chrissy’s sleepover case * B. F Skinner’s Operant conditioning * Positive reinforcement & Negative reinforcement (remove negative stimuli) strengthens response, * Punishment (give unpleasant stimuli) weakens response * Behaviour is determined by situations one is in (situationism) * People behave in ways to suit their situations Behaviours cannot be consistent enough to be traits because situations change * Solution: behaviours influenced by both person and situation (person X situation interactionism) * One situation influences people in different ways Theories to understand ourselves 1. Implicit personality theories a. Assumptions about personality used to simplif y the task of understanding others, eg. Blondes are not smart b. May give bad predictions when one project his feelings onto others and assume he’s feeling the same way c. Mindset 2. Self-narratives d. Help ppl sense a thread of consistency through their personalities over time e. Redemptive self: where one overcome obstacles to help others 3. Both theories are influenced by culture

LOM Assignment

â€Å"Lung conditions caused by 9/11† Write about the different types of lung conditions being found as a result of 9/11. We all remember the effects of this horrible day on September 11, 2001; but what we don’t know is the effects it still had on so many after the tragedy ended. When the towers of the World Trade Center collapsed it produced a dense could of smoke and vaporized concrete and drywall. New York City Fire Department rescue workers were exposed to polluted air- as well as dust and diesel exhaust that accompanied the rescues effort, this had reduced there lung function in weeks and months following the attack.Now a new study in the â€Å"New England Journal of Medicine† report that the lung impairment they observed in the rescue workers appears to be lasting. Firefighters, Emergency Medical personnel continued to have decreased lung function up to seven years after 9/11. They found most of this group suffered from â€Å"Chronic Bronchitis, Asthma, Lu ng Cancer, Mesothelioma, Tuberculosis, and Sarcoidosis† (especially prevalent among recovery and clean-up workers); 9/11 also exposed some people to having GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disorder) they addressed these declines with regular monitoring and aggressive treatment.In 2001 and 2002 the lung function of more than 12,000 fire fighters, rescue workers who were at Ground Zero had there lung functions measured, comparing the results to lung function tests given to the same group before 9/11 as a part as their department physicals. On average the lung function of the workers declined by an amount equivalent to twelve years of natural aging. In new studies, researchers continued to follow these fire fighters and medical personnel for an average of six years measuring there lung function every twelve to eighteen months to see if the initial decline persisted.They were surprised to find â€Å"little or no† improvement in average lung function, according to the study. Th e persistent decline in lung function has potential short-term consequences, it places them at higher risk for shortness of breath, cough, wheeze and impairments in their ability to exercise and perform physically demanding jobs. A lot of these heroes are now unable to work because of these long term conditions of this horrible tragedy.

Health Inequalities in Scotland/Uk Essay

The causes for health inequalities are very complex and seemingly conflicting. Recent studies show that death rates in Glasgow, Manchester and Liverpool in 2003 and 2007 were much higher than anywhere else in the UK. This is because these cities all have the same crucial issue – poverty and it is estimated that 25% of their populations are classed as ‘deprived’. There are many crucial factors to health inequalities, including poverty in which the CASSI report linked together. Perhaps one of the main issues is lifestyle choices. The North-South divide clearly shows that Scotland has major health issues. The investigation of the 3 cities (Glasgow, Manchester and Liverpool) shows that lifestyle is an important issue. It shows that Scottish people are more likely to die at a younger age, have strokes and get heart disease if they live in deprived areas, compared to their English equivalents – which still have bad health. The report illustrates that the death rate is 15% higher in Glasgow than in the other two cities, hence the phrase â€Å"The Glasgow Effect†. Six out of seven of the worst areas in Scotland are in Glasgow, where those in Edinburgh are expected to live on average four years longer. The average life expectancy for a man in Scotland is 75.3 and 79.9 for a female, yet in England it is 78 for a male and 82.1 for a female – showing that the North South Divide is important when looking at health inequalities. Smoking and obesity are both issues linked with social class and poverty. In Social Class 1, 13% of women are obese, but it is Social Class 2 where it increases to 25%. There are many illnesses related to obesity including heart disease. 66% of people in Scotland are classed as overweight, and 4 people die every week due to obesity. The struggling NHS forks out  £125 million pounds per year to treat obese people. Messages from the government have helped to reduce smoking by 75% in Social Class 1 but Social Class 2 only by 35%. 15% of people in Clarkston (Glasgow) smoke, whereas in the poorer area of Nitshill 44% of people smoke. Smoking can lead to cancer, heart disease and death. Alcohol misuse also separates social classes. 1 in 4 men in Glasgow admit to having a drinking problem with 200,000 dependant on alcohol, and 40% of women – therefore it is no surprise that it’s a major cause of premature death in Scotland. Glasgow has the highest alcohol related deaths in the UK where two thirds are from the most deprived areas. Someone born in Caltson has a life expectancy of just 54 years, but someone in Lenzie, just a matter of miles away, can expect to live to 82 years old. The life expectancy in India is 62, 8 years more than in Calton despite the fact that 80% of the population in India live in poverty, highlighting the lifestyle choices of people can impact on health. The most recent Government report states that â€Å"There is a clear relationship between income equality†. It tells us that more than two thirds of the total alcohol related deaths were in the most deprived areas and that those living in these areas of Scotland have a greater suicide risk – more than â€Å"double that of the Scottish average†. Clearly, those with money can afford to buy a gym membership, private healthcare and other things which improve their quality of life and therefore they have a better lifestyle than poorer people – thus showing a link between poverty and health, as those in rich areas can expect to live 30 years more than those in poor areas. Finally, ethnic origin is a factor which can influence health inequalities. An example of this is those originally from Pakistan and Bangladesh are five times more likely to suffer from diabetes than the white population. Indians are three times more likely at risk than whites. Pakistani and Bangladeshis men and women face a higher risk of heart disease than average, whilst Chinese face a lower than average risk. This highlights the thought that your ethnic origin can affect your health. To conclude, I believe that both poverty and lifestyle contribute to poor health, although I believe that poverty is more of an issue than any other factor.

Freedom from Want Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Freedom from Want - Essay Example The white power had been innovative and persuasive, thus fighting its principles of racism and economic disempowerment of the African American required improvised and unrelenting tactics and strategies. What we currently refer to as the Civil Rights Movement was in an actual sense a struggle, or â€Å"a battleground between slavery and liberty†, for freedom and liberty by the African Americans, extending beyond the simple objectives of advocating for legal rights. Some of the actions involved in the fight for freedom ranged from mass action protests and boycotts to armed self-defense. Racial freedom was in the air, so was economic independence and security (Gresser 32). The African Americans were tired of enduring a physical, economic, and social setup enforced by the white supremacy in the country’s policies. The political and social policies of Jim Crow of segregating public facilities ensured that all social amenities were unequal and different, form restrooms to gra vesites. Despite the Great Migration that brought around six million blacks into an industrial center in the Northern and Southern urban, the African Americans were still contained to domestic and retail works, and even those who found their way to industries were locked out of unions. The Second World War was a helping hand for the economy of the US to recover from the Great Depression of the late 1920s. Africans Americans were on the margins of prosperity, as the federal defendants had not desegregated the armed forces, jobs, and housing. The blacks were now in an unfamiliar position, between the European imperialism, American white supremacy, and Nazi racism. This led to protest by the blacks and a threat by the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) Philip Randolph to lead 100,000 people March on Washington Movement if industrial desegregation was not affected. President Franklin D. Roosevelt passed the Executive Order 8802 creating a Fair Employment Practic es Commission (FEPC), which triggered the postponement of the march.     Ã‚  

In Mexico, Wal-mart is defying its critics Article

In Mexico, Wal-mart is defying its critics - Article Example However, when everything had been considered, it became clear that microeconomics and macroeconomics had made people (especially those in small towns) poorer. The solution was to improve their purchasing power by offering them commodities at the lowest possible prices, lower than what local retailers were offering. In retrospect, it is safe to say that macroeconomics and microeconomics had a huge impact on Wal-Mart’s strategy in Mexico. The biggest retailer in the world had to develop a pricing strategy that would enable it to enter and remain in the Mexican retail segment. It is not often that a scenario like this is witnessed, especially when a large company like Wal-Mart is involved, but the economic conditions in Mexico meant that the company had to conform or go and try its luck elsewhere. Its pricing strategy is particularly damning evidence that the target market always dictates company approach and business strategy. Poor Mexican people were not going to work harder in order to afford Wal-Mart’s products; the company had to conform to their needs by formulating its pricing and accessibility around them and their purchasing power. That is the influence of macroeconomics and

Social Topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Topic - Essay Example Of all of the diseases which are passed along socially, HIV and AIDS are the most feared and misunderstood. The purpose of this paper is to examine and research the social disease known as HIV and AIDS. When talking about any disease, even sexually transmitted diseases, it is important to know that diseases are not prejudice. Yes, there is genetically inherited diseases which take place with respect to an individual’s genotype and there are social diseases that result from certain cases of being exposed or from people’s behavior, like unsafe sex. Diseases however are a medical problem and are without human prejudice. Diseases, whether bacterial in nature or viral in nature, are opportunists and will take over and infect any available living thing that meets their needs. In other words, a viral infection does not simply take over in those with a type of orientation or religion. It happens when host is available. When the first reports of HIV and AIDS came into view in the 1980’s, a sexual revolution had ended and then it came a deadly STD where before that, only menacing STD’s were around. Because of the medical scare attached to HIV and AIDS, people responded as they have for millennia with a need to find blame. The 1980’s also brought in the beginning of a socially acceptable alternative to the strait life style. For many, this meant an easy scapegoat. The many gay men just gaining a sense of social acceptance were quickly labeled as carriers and/or spreaders of HIV and AIDS. The truth of the matter however, is that HIV is a virus which is spread through certain ways. This in actuality, has nothing to do with whether a person is gay or straight but rather whether the person has had unprotected sex or has been infected with HIV positive blood. To better understand how HIV is spread, it is important to mention that HIV is categorized as a ‘retro virus’. A r etro virus is a virus that can be contracted but can then lay inactive for a

The organizational structure of the International Brotherhood of Research Paper

The organizational structure of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters - Research Paper Example These unoins are different from other labor unions. They are designed to promote powerful labor unoins leaders. Most of the contracts are negotiated by these teamsters and they provide them with their services and therefore hold dues money. Locals hire adept labor lawyers, recognized public accountants, full-time business agents, organizers, and clerical staff. Each local elects its own officers, fabricates its structure, and votes on its bylaws, in accordance with the International Constitution and Bylaws. The next structure is the Joint council. Joint councils are established in areas where there are three or more local unions. Joint Councils help synchronize Teamsters activities. They also solve jurisdictional and legal matters.The thid structure is the Trade Division and conferences where the locals disscuss their common problems and issues and interests.The headquarter of the unoin is at Washington D.C which helps its local unoins by providing them with coordinated national nego tiations.also provide them with training and educational programs.provide them with advice and proper guidance of the experts suca as organizers, negotiators, researchers etc.

Explain the bilateral trade flow between China and Australia through Essay

Explain the bilateral trade flow between China and Australia through the traditional and modern trade theories - Essay Example (Chambers, 2006). On the other hand, Australia’s economy has turned out to be extremely prominent and so the bilateral trade between China and Australia. The economic boom in China cannot be ignored world wide and constitutes a number of opportunities to trade with Australia. The gas treaty between the two countries had established as the predecessor in order strengthen their trade relationship. However, China needs to have raw materials and is an eminent buyer of liquid gas and minerals from Australia. The Prime Minister of Australia John Howard and President Hu Jintao of China decided on a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) as well. Hence china has become Australia’s chief customer whether it is Australia’s natural possessions or it the iron ore, which has made Australia expand its seaport to export more iron to China. The international relationship of China with Australia has been progressing since the year 1973 when the two governments signed the trade agreement and the bond between these two countries is growing even stronger day by day. The joint accords have been established since past 32 years related to numerous commodities such as dairy products, agriculture, raw materials, natural gas, iron ore, energy, hygiene guidelines along with capital protection and support for traditional aspects that have developed the business association of the two countries. *Footnote: Thomas Nicholas, Re-orienting Australia- china relations 1972 to the present, Great Britain, MPG Books LTd.2004. The relationship has further enhanced due to their combined Participation in APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation). The study also focuses on the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the challenges along with opportunities for Australia and China where the involvement of WTO (world trade organization) also plays a vital role. Initially the conciliation tool place in Sydney in 2005, May and continued till the beginning of year 2008 and had 11 negotiable meetings. A free t rade agreement is a contract between two countries where tariffs are excluded from deals and it lies under the rules set by WTO.( Thomas, 2004) A gauge to determine the economic conditions of a country is its gross domestic product (GDP) which refers to a final worth of every product in a particular time frame and is measured in terms of comparison with last year (quarter of full year), e.g. if the current GDP of a country comes out to be 5%, it shows that the economy has raised by 5% in the current year. A negative GDP value indicates a state of recession in a country, leaving the investors in trouble due to economic crisis. A strong economy will lead to good salary increments as the companies stay in profit, while a fluctuation in GDP (up or down) will also affect the stock market and the investors. GDP may be calculated in two ways: first method is to calculate the total earnings and profits, and second way is the calculation of expenditure (amount spent in a year). China is cons idered as one of the largest economies in the world. According to The Economist 2004a, china stood at 3rd number in increasing global GDP and importing goods from the year 2000 – 2003. The country is famous for a wide range of products whether food stuff, machines, toys, plastics goods, electronic products, appliances, industrial goods such as food processing units, rubber goods, furniture, etc. The GDP of China is increasing by seven percent every year since last 5 years. The contribution of China to global economy is growing gradually and trade constitutes as a chief feature in making its

Opportunity and Inequality in the United States Term Paper

Opportunity and Inequality in the United States - Term Paper Example The very human being used these factors to be markers of superiority or inferiority. Based on these stereotypes, avenues were instituted to propagate and enable these stereotypes. As such, the best schools belonged to a given race or sex, the best jobs began to be occupied by a specific social class or race or sex, specific social places got reserved for specific people etc. In effect, inequality had been instituted by such practices. Those propagating the inequality and the victims of the inequality believed in the practice, with the former group feeling elated as the latter embraced great resentment against the former. The practice continued for centuries until the very human beings that had started it started to see the evil in the practice and as such started to fight it. They are fighting to abolish classification is society along economic, racial, gender and ethnic grounds (Gilbert, 2002). Policies have since been put in place to equalize people, movements have voiced their res entments against he practice and the results The practice has receded to "under the carpet". If you though inequality is dead, you have to think again. This paper seeks to highlight the practice of inequality in the United States by looking at the equal opportunities in the same land. The paper will start by looking at the equal opportunities in the US before it finally highlights the forms of inequalities witnessed in the US. Factors Fuelling Inequality in the US As mentioned in the introduction, a number of factors have been in use to propagate the practice of inequality in the US. These factors have often been both physical and the supposed genetic attributes. Both have hitherto been used to assign all the statuses in the society which would atheism been assigned on equal terms. Race is one such factor. Racial inequality has been and still is rampant in the US. The worst of it is the manifestation in which a white individual is 90% not likely to be a suspect in a crime scene as opposed to a black individual or anyone form the Middle East who will almost be 100% criminal suspects. Ethnicity, besides gender has been the strongest instigator of inequality. Aboriginal or not, foreigner or citizen etc just demonstrates the use of ethnic inequality which is seen in the allocations of resources, positions and status in the society. Gender is yet another factor in which hitherto women have been relegated until recently when they moved their asserti veness to an all time high level. Women fought so hard to assert their position in the society and as they did this they were labeled feminists. In as much as there could be feminists, the underlying factor is that there is inequality at whatever level conceivable in the society. Other factors include wholeness of body and mind in which the physically and/or mentally challenged individuals have unequal allocation of resources, position or even statuses. Generally, inequality is never a facade nor is it a mirage; it is a reality and the US citizens are consciously or otherwise basking in this very reality of inequality

Uptake of heavy metals (arsenic and lead) by earthworms in a Literature review

Uptake of heavy metals (arsenic and lead) by earthworms in a contaminated soils - Literature review Example Despite healthy soil formed in the absence of earthworms, their presence within the soil indicates the soil is productive. As a result of the tedious activities by earthworms their importance for the soil community includes enhancing mixing and aggregation of soil (Weeks et al 2004, p.820). While looking for food, Weeks et al. (2004, p.821) observe that, earthworms engage in a task of moving to the surface and back down, ingesting particles of soil and other organic substances in their way. Further, earthworms excrete the substances it takes in to the soil, and the excreted matter by the earthworms, are nutrient-dense casts. The result in this sense, involves a process that shift the top layer of soil down to the lower strata, and dragging the bottom soil to the upper surface. When earthworms burrow through the dust, this enhances the soil structure by loosening the soil that are compact and establish numerous tunnels under the surface. The importance of such tunnels includes enhancing soil porosity and creating pathways that allows the intake of water and air into the soil. The process further facilitates absorption and the retention of water, and minimizing run offs and soil erosion (Weeks et al 2004, p.822). ... the soil surface and in the process, mix the organic material as a result of tearing the organic materials and depositing these materials deep within the soil. Their cast also deposits on the soils surface thus, contributing to the soil content. In addition, they enhance bacteria and fungi activity in the soil that consumes organic materials and transforming these materials to humus. Earthworms largely, forms part of the food web within the soil, which presents a large community, composed of organism that plays a significant role in soil formation. In the same note, soil food web encompasses soil-inhabiting organisms that include algae, insects, plants, reptiles, fungi and small mammals. The organisms, impacts on soil formation through burrowing, breaking down materials (both animal and plant materials) that is significant in adding organic matter when they die. Earthworms often provide a food source to the soil community and their cast is important in facilitating the survival of ot her organisms within the soil community. They assist in terms of facilitation the provision of oxygen, water and nutrition for other organisms (Hobbelen et al 2006, p.644). The ecological groups of earthworms and their feeding behaviors According to ecology studies on soils by Nahmani, Hodson and Black (2007, p.402), that focuses on linkages between fauna and microbes, identifies earthworms, as a significant soil invertebrate within the ecosystem and contributes, to biomass and activity which operate as ecosystem engineers. Nahmani et al (2007, p.402) agree that, soil consists of various microorganisms and forms part of earthworm’s diet. In this regard, three ecological groups related to earthworms and their feeding behaviors, exists in literature. They include epigeic, which is

Communication styles Essay Example for Free

Communication styles Essay The impact of communication in marriage cannot be overemphasized as it is the main method of solving any crisis or conflict arising. There are different communication styles that can be applied in a marriage, expressiveness, driving, and relativity or analytical are forms of communication that may be used in marriage. Expressers get excited personal, waste time with too many facts or even show emotion to their partners while those with driving communication styles become very decisive and offer strong view points. Those who are relative in the way they are communicating, like positive attention and may want their partners to be helpful. This group of persons however, shies off when real problems come in especially when it comes to handling the children. This communication style is used by young marriages where partners just about 25 years of age get married. Communications styles can also be described as passive, assertive or aggressive. Passive forms communication involves putting the tights of the other partner before yours i.e. minimizing your own self worth at the expense of the marriage. Being assertive means that one partner in the marriage stands up for his or her rights while maintaining respect for the other i. e. all the partners in the marriage are all equal. Aggressiveness is a communication style that ensures that a wife or a husband stands up for his pr her right and in the process violate the rights of the other. This style of communication is usually the worst and may lead to divorce in extreme cases. Marriage resiliency Marriage resiliency is the couple’s capacity to develop and cultivate strengths from each other for the common good of the marriage in order ton meet their challenges . Resiliency can be defined to describe the responsive capabilities, social dynamics that foster health development of the marriage. Resiliency starts from an individual capacity to a family and community level making sure that the marriage bounces back after experiencing non-normative and expected challenges. Family resilience is characterized by invariant approaches that are dimensioned to help families resist any form of disruption in the face of change and become adaptive when a crisis occurs. Immigration and marriage Marriages are usually negatively affected by immigration procedures. Different countries have different laws governing the marriage of its citizens to non-citizens. It is usually an impediment to couples’ relationships because certain laws may offer recognition to one of the partner and the other is left out. However, with the emergence of dual citizenship rights, the issue may in the near future become a thing of the past. ‘Till death do us part? ’ This figure of speech is common in all wedding ceremonies and the couple getting married solemnly swear to the congregation that they will remain together till death do them part. Most critics believe that as long as there are increased cultural differences, modernization of societies and increases in domestic violence, the metaphor no longer makes sense. Every man and woman believes that they can live happily with each other especially when it is based on the performance of the two during courtship. This is not usually the case because immediately after marriage, the two members start quarrelling over this or that. This is the major contributing factor to the family problems and other domestic issues that families experience these days. It has been said that the more society becomes complicated, the more marriages become complicated and finally the more families become complicated. It is however, recommended that a personal commitment to each other within the marriage become the kingpin of the relationship. Lessons learnt from writing on marriage It has been interesting while researching on this topic. It is one of the research works that not only serves as an academic tool but also provides a learning opportunity for a person like me. Marriage is part and parcel of life and majority of the young people would dream of having better lives in future through marriage. Most young people believe that to secure there future and their old age days, they need to have married properly and have children who will look after the in future. Going through the types of marriages, its integration to the family setting and the importance of knowing the exact roles of each partner in a marriage is particularly useful. The various rules and boundaries that must be set to ensure the sustainability and stability of a marriage gives one an overview of how it is possible to develop them in real life situations through the experiences of other people and such kind of research. Therefore, this is one of the rare opportunities in life where one gets to learn more about what directly affects him or her in life. Personally, I feel grateful for the work I have done on this subject and I feel obliged to tell others about the integration of marriage systems in our families to enable them form good families now and in the future Questions for further research Marriage as part of a family practice continues to be complex especially with the emergence of contradicting legislation and complex societies; there is need for further research on; the impacts of different types of marriages on the extended families, development of policies and laws, and the society in general . What are the solutions to these? And what could be the role of governments and learning institutions in maintaining and making sure that marriages serve the purposed they are intended to. Other issues of concern are the ability of people to adopt resilience as a way of recovering from married related violence such as divorce, is divorce the answer to breaking marriages? With advancement in technology including foster mothers, test tube babies and the like, what could be the implications of these in cultural marriages and societies? Conclusion Marriages are forming a family. Marriage roles, rules, resilience abilities, communication styles, and spouse differences are issues that can affect the formation, development and improvement. Good marriage values are important not only for family cohesion but also for societal cultural maintenance. Challenges regarding re-orientation of the marriages within a family are many and common in this modern society, the problem is the manner in which they are currently addressed. References Antonovsky, A. , Sourani, T (1988): Family sense of coherence and family adaptation.Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 79-92 Kaufman, J. , Ziegler, E. (1987): Do abused children become abusive parents? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 186-192 McCubbin, H. , Patterson, J. M. (1983): The family stress process; The Double Helix ABCX model of adjustment and adaptation, Social stress and the family: Advances in family stress theory and research New York pp. 7 -38. Nichols, M. , Schwartz, R. (2000): Family communications: Concepts and methods, 5th edition, Needham Heights press Rolland, J. S. , Weine, S. (2000): Kosovar Family Professional Educational Collaborative. AFTA Newsletter, 79, 34-43 Rutter, M. (1987): psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-330 Stacey, J. (1990): Brave new families: Stories of domestic upheaval in late 20th century America. New York: Basic Books. Walsh, F. , McGoldrick, M (1998): Families in later life: Challenge and opportunities. The expanded life cycle Needham Heights, MA: pp. 307-327 Walsh, F. , McGoldrick, M (1991): Living beyond loss: Death in the family. New York: Norton.

Mid Term Essay Example for Free

Mid Term Essay I affirm that the attached work is entirely my own, except where the words or ideas of other writers are specifically acknowledged according to accepted citation conventions. This assignment has not been submitted for any other course at Robert Kennedy College or any other institution. I have revised, edited and proofread this paper. I certify that I am the author of this paper and that any assistance I received in its preparation is fully acknowledged and fully disclosed in this paper (examination). I have also cited any sources (footnotes or endnotes) from which I used data, ideas, theories, or words, whether quoted directly or paraphrased. I further acknowledge that this paper has been prepared by me specifically for this course. MIDTERM ASSESSMENT Q1. 70 Points Understanding Human Behavior is critical to organizations discuss the benefits of self evaluation/self assessment as it relates to leaders today. Q2. 30 Points: Prejudice can be hurtful and destructive discuss how you can personally reduce prejudice in your workplace please provide an example. Understanding Human Behavior is critical to organizations discuss the benefits of self evaluation/self assessment as it relates to leaders today. As the world is becoming more dependent on electronic gadgets, its becomes more difficult to have a face to face discussion or contacts with the people we work with. These have made it more important to understand the behavior of the people we work with and more critical to any manager that wants to be successful in his organization. For a leader to fully understand Human behavior, that person need to first do what is called self assessment. † being self aware allows one to recognize and improve their strength and weakness in order to maximize their leadership[ potential† Discovering your Authentic Leadership, Harvard Business Review February 2007 page 3 Human behaviors are must predictable if one have taken time to sturdy another person. In organizational Behavior 15th edition by Stephen and Timothy page 11 â€Å"Behavior is generally predictable and the systematic study of behavior is a means to making reasonable accurate predictions† Self evaluation is a major factor towards becoming a good leader, because this evolves looking at oneself so that all aspect that is important are identified and evaluated. As a leader you need to know your capacity and ability. The oxford dictionary defines self assessment as an evaluation of oneself or actions, altitudes or performance. As the definition implies there are several ways that a leader can evaluate his or her performance. In Harvard Business review of 2007 with the title discovering your Authentic leadership page 5 eight key questions are asked, and this I believe if well understood can benefit a leader today. And help to develop a better self evaluation mechanism. The people and experience in your early life have a great impact on an individual, As a leader knowing where your coming from is very important and this makes you to compare note to with were you want to be in the future. Self evaluation will help you know if progress is being made and were more efforts are required. As a modern leader you need to be systematic in your assessment, without over overrating your skills, this can be done through your pears subordinates by way of asking questions that brings out the honest answers from them. Arrogance should not have a part in these for your survival depends on their honest response. Every leader most have values, HBR in discovering you Authentic leadership page 4 says â€Å"The value that forms the basis for Authentic leadership are derived from your beliefs and convictions, but you will not know what your true values are until they are tested under pressure† must time people say† Nothing will ever make me change my mind â€Å"only to shift ground when much pressure are mounted on us, In other wars pressure is what refines our true vales, and when self evaluation is applied the value that you have or come out with unshaken is your true value. A leader is also motivated to act by one action or the other, self assessment will help you to know your motivation, does it come from the inside or the outside? Knowing the answers will help you to discover yourself. Most people waste there life leaving a programmed life, and not having satisfaction, only when they do things out of motivation will they truly be happy. You’re Family, friends, workmates and neighbors all reflect the kind of a leader one is so in the process of self assessments one needs to evaluate all to be sure whether the right set of people are what he has around him. Success is a team work; we are all interdependent on each other. Another area of leadership self awareness is on consistence, Do I double speck? A leader should be known as one who is constant in all situations that confronts him, and make sure everyone within the organization is carried along on most activities. A leader should assess his personality to see if he owns up to his mistake, leaders are human, they make mistakes and should accept correction. Leaders need to make out time for themselves and family. Having done a proper self assessment as a leader am ever more determined to develop a system and process were talented people are attracted and aligned to be future leaders. â€Å"No individual achievement can equal the pleasure of leading a group of people to achieve a worthy goal. When you cross the finish line together, all pain and suffering you may have experienced quickly vanishes† HBR discovering you authentic leadership page 8. In conclusion every leader must do some kind of self assessment periodically for improvement; this in true reflects in the person the quality of a good leader. Q2. Prejudice can be hurtful and destructive discuss how you can personally reduce prejudice in your workplace please provide an example. â€Å"All human being are born free and equal in dignity and right, they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood†. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human right. Despite this well articulated statement, Prejudice is still a universal problem, we all are prejudiced in one way or the other, but for us to be good leaders we all need to work hard in other to reduce prejudice in our work place. As a step towards reducing prejudice one has to acknowledge that it really exists. It is only when we accept it existence can we start to discuss way to end or reduce prejudice. â€Å"Prejudgment becomes prejudice only if they are not reversible when exposed to new knowledge† says the book the Nature of prejudice. And only the type of contacts that lead people together is likely to result in changed attitudes. According to the report UNISCO against Racism â€Å"education could be a precious tool in the struggle against new form of racism, discrimination and exclusion† having this fine idea before us should make us more aware of our responsibilities. The book Understanding Prejudice and discrimination says. â€Å"Perhaps they must important conclusions to emerge from prejudice research are 1. No one capable of human thoughts and speech is immune from harboring prejudice. It often takes deliberate effort and awareness to reduce prejudice and 3. With sufficient motivation it can be done† As a business owner I have I have synchronized the research work into my working environments. And this have reduced Prejudice in our organization, My country Nigeria is a multi ethnic and culturally diversified nation with more than three hundred ethnic groups. Must time working with people of different ethnic groups can be challenging if once does not do away with his pre conceived thoughts about another tribe. As an IGBO specking person I have come not to think that any other tribe is inferior to mine. So during recruitment we do not discriminate or apply mono-ethnic sentiments, rather we appreciate the diversity and uniqueness of our individuality. So everybody who performs well is given the opportunity to work with us. I have also made sure that each project team is not mono-ethnic; so that they can all learn from their diversity and this have really reduce the level of prejudice in our work place. I have notice a staff who was once very prejudiced about an individual from another ethnic group being good friends after they worked together on a project for a period of time, when I asked about his the new closeness and friendship with the person he was once prejudiced about he simple replied â€Å"ignorance can kill†. This was because by working with the individual as project team member he came to realize that the person has a very good principle and very hardworking too against what he previously thought.

Determining Rates of Interest in the Money Market

Determining Rates of Interest in the Money Market Explain in detail how interest rates are determined in the money market. Examine the likely consequences for the macroeconomy of a reduction in the rate of interest and highlight the factors that might limit the effects. This essay is going to demonstrate how the rate of interest is determined in the money market. It will examine the impact that a reduction in the interest rate has on the economy. The framework used will be the interest rate mechanism, where an increase in the money supply will change interest rates and stimulate interest-sensitive expenditures. It will then highlight the factors that can limit and offset the effects of a reduction in the interest rate. The interest rate is defined by Sloman et al. (2012) as the price paid for borrowing money. Two factors that determine the interest rate is the supply of money and the demand for money. The supply of and demand for money in the economy interact together to reach a level of equilibrium. According to Sloman et al. (2012) the money market is a market for short-term debt instruments in which financial institutions are active participants. Figure 1 and 2 illustrates the money market and the demand for money. The demand for money refers to an individual’s desire to hold their wealth in the form of money instead of using it to purchase goods or financial assets. The money demand curve is downward sloping as an increase in the interest rate leads to a decrease in the quantity of money demanded. Money supply is the entire stock of currency and other liquid instruments in the economy. The money supply is set by the central bank (Bank of England) and is exogenous (does not depend on the demand for money). The money supply is fixed and is not influenced by the rate of interest. In figure 1, the x-axis measures the money supply, the y-axis represent the rate of interest and the L curve represents the liquidity preference curve (demand for money). The money supply is represented by the vertical line Ms. The intersection of the money supply and money demand curves reveals the equilibrium rate of interest and is fixed at that point where they equate. According to Keynes the intersection of the curves is purely a monetary phenomenon. John Maynard Keynes (1936) in his book the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money described the demand for money through liquidity preference framework. According to this theory, the primary reasons for holding money are for transactional, precautionary and speculative demands. The sum of all three demands make up the total demand for money. According to the theory, if interest rates are high individuals demand for money (liquidity preference) is low and when interest rates are low, the demand for holding money increases. In figure 2, the curve L1 is the transaction plus precautionary demand for holding money. L stands for the liquidity preference and by definition; the liquidity preference is the demand for holding assets in the form of money. L is the total demand for money balances and is derived by the horizontal addition of curves L1 (the transactions plus precautionary demand for money) and L2 (the speculative demand for money). The shift from L1 to L2 illustrates a s hift in the liquidity preference (an increase in the demand for holding assets in the form of money). The interest rate mechanism is graphed in a three-stage process. Stage 1 illustrates the money market, where an increase in the money supply from M to M’ (with everything else being equal) leads to a fall in the rate of interest from r1 to r2. At stage 2, the fall in the interest rate leads to an increase in the level of investment from I1 to I2. The increase in the level of investment translates in the third diagram shown in stage 3. Lower interest rates increases investment as it becomes relatively cheaper for firms to invest and businesses to take out loans to finance greater spending and investment. Stage 3 shows how a rise in investment leads to a multiplied rise in the national income from Y1 to Y2. Stage 3 shows the Keynesian withdrawals and injections function where an increase in investment has increased the level of injections J1 to J2. This excess in injections over withdrawals will lead to a rise in the national income from Y1 to Y2. Interestingly, an increase in t he level of income means that consumers will have more disposable income for consumption purposes (Sloman et al. 2012). Consumption is the largest component of aggregate demand and has an effect on other components of aggregate demand such as net exports and investment Griffiths and Wall (2007). Lower interest rates increases the level of consumption by making the opportunity cost of consumption is lower. This encourages greater expenditure as borrowing through credit cards becomes cheaper. Lower interest rates makes saving less attractive by reducing an individual’s incentive to save. This lower incentive to save encourages consumers to spend rather than to hold onto money. It also reduces the income from savings and the interest rate that is due on loans taken out. However, borrowing now becomes more attractive and this stimulates an increase in spending. Lower Interest rates can boost the prices of assets such as shares and houses. Higher house prices means that current home owners must extend their mortgages which further enables them to finance higher consumption. Interestingly, the higher asset prices increases the wealth of households (through the wealth effect) which increases their incentive to spend as confidence will be higher. Higher asset prices means that businesses are also able to finance their investment (purchase of capital) at a lower cost. Lower interest rates also reduces the cost of interest payments on mortgages by reducing the monthly cost of mortgage payments. This increases the disposable income of householders which increases their level of spending. Moreover, lower interest rate can reduce the value of the Pound Sterling. If UK interest rates fall relative to overseas, saving money in UK becomes less attractive as higher returns can be earned in another country. This reduces the demand for the pound sterling and causes the reduction in the value. In figure 6 at stage 2, the fall in the currency is due to a decrease in the demand for the Pound Sterling in the foreign exchange market. The rise in the supply of the domestic currency from S1 to S2 leads to a fall in the demand for the currency from D1 to D2 and this causes a depreciation in the exchange rate from er1 to er2. This fall leads to a rise in the demand for exports as UK exports become relatively cheaper and more attractive overseas. There will also be a fall in demand for imports (as they become more expensive) and thus causing an increase in the national income (which further increases spending). What if other factors can offset the full extent of a reduction in interest rates? There exist time lags in the economy that can limit the impact of rate cuts on the level on interest-sensitive expenditures. In figure 4, the increase in the money supply lead to a multiplied effect and resulted in a rise in the national income. However, the mechanism failed to highlight how a rise in income will also lead to a rise in the transactional demand of money (L1). In this circumstance, at stage 1, L1 would shift to the right and thus lead to a smaller fall in the interest rate than illustrated. Thus, the level of investment at stage 2 and the national income at stage 3 will not rise as much as shown as well. The overall effect of the money supply on national income will depend on the size of each stage. Their relative sizes depend on the shapes of the liquidity preference and investment curves (as in figure 6 and 7). A bigger change in the interest rate will be caused if the liquidity prefer ence is less elastic. The more interest-elastic the investment curve is, the bigger the change in investment. If the marginal propensity to withdraw is lower and therefore the curve is flatter, this will cause a bigger multiplied change in the national income than illustrated (Sloman et al. 2012). Keynesian economists stress how volatile stages 1 and 2 are in the interest rate mechanism. What if increasing the money supply leads to no interest rate reductions? What if investment is inelastic and cannot be influenced by changes in rates. Figure 6 illustrates an elastic liquidity preference curve. The less elastic the liquidity preference is, the bigger the change that will be caused in the interest rate. Due to its gently sloping curve, a rise in the money supply from M to M’ will lead to an only small fall in the interest rate. This will them limit the impact that the interest rate has on consumption, saving decisions and any other interest-sensitive expenditures. According to Keynesians, the demand for money (L) can be very elastic in response to changes in the interest rates and the liquidity preference curve can become relatively flat. The full effect of a rate cut can be limited greatly by the nature of the demand curve. At r2, if individuals perceive and expect no further rate cuts, any increase in the money (from M’ to M’’) will have no impact on r. The liquidity trap is where Keynes believed this additional money will be lost in. within this theory, interest rates have a floor where an increase in the money supply has no further impact. The financial crisis 2008-09 was a predicament where policy makers feared that increases in the money supply will lead to idle balances lost in the liquidity trap. The central bank used an unconventional monetary policy known as quantitative easing, where they deliberately increased the base rate via the purchase of bonds and other securities in exchange for money. This process of credit creation was used to increase bond prices and thus reduce the interest rate and stimulate growth. Arguably, increases in the money supply will have some impact on the rate of interest as we have seen in the financial crisis where deliberate increases in the money supply lead to further increases in the i nterest rate and thus spending as well (Sloman et al. 2012). Figure 8 illustrates the effect on interest rates of an unstable liquidity preference curve. This figure further explains how the liquidity preference curve fluctuates due to factors such as expectations in the inflation rate and direction of the interest rate (to name a few). Therefore, due to its instability it is difficult to predict the effect on interest rates of a change in the money supply. Another factor that can influence the investment schedule are changes in investor confidence. An increase in investor confidence can shift the investment curve to the right and at any given interest rates, firms will want to invest more. A decrease in their confidence would shift the curve to the left. If investors believe that the economy is going to get out of recession, their confidence and level of investment will increase. If firms believe that inflation will rise and that the central bank will soon increase the interest rate, confidence and investment in the economy will be low (Sloman et al 2012). In Figure 7, a bigger change in investment will be caused if the investment curve is more interest-elastic. In the liquidity preference framework, investment demand is unresponsive to interest rate changes and that a large change in the interest rate is detrimental to affect investment. Evidence to confirm this was illustrated through the impact of investor confidence. This consensus on the behaviour of investment can be argued in that the focus should be more on how volatile and erratic investment is in response to confidence than its responsiveness to the interest rate. For example, in figure 9, the impact of a fall in interest rates is limited by business confidence. Initially, the reduction in the interest rate has increased investment. However, if the fall in interest rates is accompanied by an increase in business confidence by investors, the investment curve will shift from l1 to l2. On the other hand, if the fall in the interest rate is accompanied by a decrease in confidence then the investment curve will decrease and fall shift from l1 to l3. This impact is contrary to what was illustrated when the investment curve was believed to be inelastic. Therefore, expansionary monetary policy is likely to be more effective if firms have confidence in its effectiveness (Sloman et al. 2012). In the liquidity preference framework, the assumption is that an increase in the money supply leads to lower interest rates if everything else remains equal. However, in reality an increase in the money supply might impact other factors in the economy that could increase the interest rate instead of decreasing it. Two factors to highlight are the income effect and the price-level effect. The income effect describes how an increase in the money supply has an expansionary influence on the economy and this in effect raises the national income and wealth. The liquidity preference theory predicts that an increase in the national income and wealth will increase the interest rate and offset the original impact of an increase in the money supply. Another effect that can limit the impact of a reduction in interest rates is the price-level effect. In this effect, an increase in the money supply increases the overall price level which also increases the interest rate. In conclusion, economics is a social science where theories are constantly examined and redrafted. In the interest rate mechanism theory, an increase in the money supply will lower interest rates and stimulate interest-sensitive expenditures. This stimulation will have a multiplied effect on the level consumption, business investment, mortgage payments and asset prices. However, the impact of a reduction in the interest rate on the economy is quite a complex subject to address. Many determinants must be factored in for the full impact to be noticeable. Even if the overall effect of a reduction in the interest rate is quite strong, it is highly unpredictable to measure and estimate the magnitude of it. Investment is influenced by confidence and on elasticity to the interest rate. This changes the original impact of a rate cut. The nature liquidity preference curve can be highly unstable and not be impacted by any changes in the interest rate. There also other factors like the price-le vel, expectations and income that can impact and offset the intended purpose of an increase in the money supply. All the factors highlighted in this essay can limit and offset the impact of a reduction in interest rates on interest-sensitive expenditures and the growth of the economy. REFERENCES Keynes, J.M. (1936), The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform Griffiths, A. and Wall, S. (2007) Applied economics, 11th ed. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman. Sloman, J., Wride, A. and Garratt, D. (2012) Economics, 8th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/Pages/overview.aspx http://www.macrobasics.com/chapters/chapter8/lesson83/ http://harbert.auburn.edu/~thommsn/FINC-3700/ME7-WebChapters/WebApp04_4.pdf http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/re/articles/?id=2505 http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/qb120104.pdf https://www.creditwritedowns.com/2010/10/on-liquidity-traps-and-quantitative-easing.html

The Collape of Animal Farm Essay -- Animal Farm George Orwell Essays

The Collape of Animal Farm In today’s world, people have always strived to create a utopian society. In the novel ANIMAL FARM written by George Orwell, the animals strive to create their own utopian society based on equality and prosperity. Animalism was created to, as like the Ten Commandments, Animalism’s Seven Commandments were rules for the animals to live by. However, similar to God’s rules, Animalism was a difficult concept for all the animals to follow and live by. Secondly, the collapse of Animal Farm was due to the animal’s own intelligence and their ability to fully understand how the farm was being run. Finally, the failure of Animal Farm was due to in large part by the pigs power over the other animals and the greed and desires that the pigs wanted to achieve. Therefore, the collapse of Animal Farm had to do with Animalism itself, the animals, and the corruption of the pigs. Animalism had a great effect on Animal Farm. In the beginning of the novel, all the animals cared only for one thing. The defeat of Mr. Jones, and the equality of each animal. After Mr. Jones was finally defeated, and the animals were on their own, the Seven Commandments, (similar to the Ten Commandments) were established. The Seven Commandments were to be the principles of Animalism, an unalterable law by which all animals must live by. The pigs, Snowball and Napoleon along with the other animals, decided to inscribe the commandments on the wall, in large white lettering, so that they never be forgotten. These commandments were established for the good of each animal, to maintain order and a peaceful life on the farm. Old Major, the prized middle white boar, taught Animalism and the commandments. He was the leader of the animal’s rebellion. Old Major was the one who led the way for the animals, and taught them exactly what Animalism meant. He clearly states this in the speech he gave, a few days before his death. â€Å"Among us animals let there be perfect unity, perfect comradeship in the struggle. All men are enemies. All animals are comrades.† In the beginning, the animals lived each day the way Old Major taught them to. However, throughout the novel, Animalism slowly began to break away. Men were becoming comrades to the pigs, and the other animals were played as fools. The farm was collapsing little by little. Due to the animal’s low understanding and intelligence, th... ... read what was written there. But it appears to me that that wall looks different. Are the Seven Commandments the same as they used to be Benjamin?† It was true, the wall was different. All the commandments were gone, except for one single commandment which read, â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.† The pig’s power had taken over Animal Farm. They had completely ravaged everything they once believed in. Even the name was changed back to Manor Farm. Napoleon was no longer an animal, nor the leader of the animals. He was a human, and an inspiration to other humans. Everything was gone, and Animal Farm, was no more. Consequently, Animal Farm was beyond repair. Due to animalism itself, the animals, and the corruption of the pigs, Animal Farm was collapsed. Everything the animals did to overcome humans, to gain equality and prosperity was done for nothing. Without a doubt, the collapse of Animal Farm was never engaged to happen, the pigs always did want power. Their power destroyed everything that Old Major asked of them. Animals for centuries to come, will never have the equality they deserve, due to a few rules which were not able to be attained.

Energy Deregulation :: essays research papers

As we have witnessed the rolling blackouts and emergency alerts throughout many parts of our state of California within the past 12 months, there is a question waiting to be answered. Why do we have an energy crisis when there are other states that are doing just fine? Before we come to any hasty conclusion, let us ask ourselves what happened to the energy policy during the mid 90s? During that period the electric utilities went from being highly regulated to being deregulated following the trend in successful deregulation of many industries such as airline and telecommunication industries. The concept that deregulation will bring more competitive prices and better services to the public, undermined the negative potentials of the free market system. Deregulation bill must be abolished because it brings higher electricity prices, lower reliabilities of electricity, and also it threatens to drag down our economy along with it. First, we have seen a nation-wide increase in both wholesale and retail electricity prices. In California as an example, the wholesale prices increased seven times last year compared to 1999 (Kahn and Lynch 13). The average residential electric bill almost doubled from $40 to $80 in San Diego when the SDG & E’s retail price freeze ended in June 2000.1 According to Washington Governor Gray Locke, â€Å"the whole energy prices have gone up from ten to twenty times the prices of a year ago (1). In New York, more specifically in New York City and parts of Westchester County which are one of the first areas in the country to deregulate retail prices entirely, the retail rates have increased almost 30% (Eisenberg 47). This is bad when you consider that ones that are going to be most hurt from these unreasonably high electricity prices will be the individuals and families that are in the low-income bracket. Second, the reliability of electricity was compromised throughout many parts of our state, affecting both residential and business sectors. On June 14, 2000, about 100,000 customers were blacked out in San Francisco Bay Area (Kahn and Lynch 9-10). According to Lorenco Goncalves, the CEO of California steel industries, â€Å"We were interrupted 14 times this month [January] compared to not once from 1987 to 1998. So many other industries depend on what we send them†¦If they can’t depend on my products, they will [buy them] elsewhere† (Wood and Sherer). These uncertain interruptions are causing a lot of damage in our economy.

Cults :: essays research papers

Cults Types of cults Two main kinds of cults exist today: Messianic Cults This is a cult that has a leader. Whatever the leader orders his members to do must be done, whether it would be sacrifice or murder, it must be done. In return the leader of the cult would "save" his followers. Mellenarian Cults This is a type of cult that refers to the 1,000 year reign of Christ. These groups believe that dramatic events, such as the end of the world or judgment day, will occur at the turn of the century. Traits of cults A feeling and a certainty of belief. A single strong and powerful leader. A tendency to control communication. A totalistic outlook; a view that spiritual life in the group must be present 24 hours a day, seven days a week. This would not allow a member to do any hobbies, work or interests outside of the cult. People who join cults There are four different types of people who participate in cults. The first type of people are normal people who come from intact families and turn to cults at a moment of difficulty in there life. These people haven't had any other problems previously. The second group of people are people who had problems in there past in development and emotion. The third and smallest group of cult members are psychotic individuals. The fourth group of people feel as if they don't fit into society. Different cults Charles Manson was never close to his parents, for he never met his father and his mother was an alcoholic. This lead Manson through a confusing age. He was always getting in trouble with the law. After he got out of prison he began to experiment with the psychedelic drug LSD. In San Francisco he learned how to talk like a hippie and sounded very wise, to lost and confused young men and woman. He always looked for sad or disordered young women. As he found them he talked to them, and they quickly trusted him deeply. In a short time he had gathered up enough young women to be his slaves and do whatever he asked. This is were Charles Manson began his cult leadership. Manson told four of his followers to break into a wealthy home in Los Angeles and kill everyone

Meditation

Meditation is believed to have originated from the followers of Buddhism.   Buddhist teaching of Nirvana or the end of suffering may be attained by cultivating within oneself the values of morality, mindfulness and wisdom.   The means to Mindfulness is through Meditation, the ancient Buddhist ritual. Meditation has been with the world for thousands of years.   It has evolved from its spiritual origin and is practiced today for health, therapeutic and wellness reasons as well.   They have several techniques like, Breathing, Transforming, and Transcendental.  Ã‚   The basic components that must be present in meditation are:   a quiet place, a relaxed posture, deep concentration, and open mind. Apart from the religious relevance of Meditation, it also has its practical importance in our modern and daily existence.  Ã‚   Life these days can be so rushed.   Most of the time, our energy is sapped and we are over-fatigued.   We work more, relax less.   Our health can be negatively affected.   If we stop for a few minutes and do Breathing Meditation we will calm our nerves and reduce our stress. Meditation helps change mental attitudes.   When our minds are troubled, we are generally unhappy.   With Transforming Meditation we focus on pleasant thoughts and become individuals with peaceful and happy dispositions.   Transforming Meditation is a common spiritual exercise of the Buddhist religion. Worldly concerns fill our minds with worries.   We need to relieve our minds with this mental garbage and unwanted burden.   Then and only then will we truly be liberated and in the process find peace of mind and gladness of heart.   Even if we have the best things in life, these Page 2 3/31/2017 would not necessarily make us happy.   It would be inner calm and quiet that would make for lasting and real joy, even in the most challenged situations.   Such state could be attained if we are trained in the ways of Meditation. Controlling the mind is difficult.   The mind is pliant that it goes with the flow of circumstances.   When everything goes the way we want them to go, then we are pleased.   If it is contrary to how we want things to be, we feel bad.   These things, pleasant and unpleasant, affect our disposition in life.   Our being happy or sad depends on the occurrences in our daily existence.   With Meditation we will learn to control our mind and consequently our heart, the seat of our emotions.   Meditation creates an inner balance in us and it enables us to take both the difficult and smooth times with equanimity. Meditation drives away negative attitudes that cause us misery.   When we resort to meditation as a routine we train our minds to focus on the positive.   This way, we always see the bright side of life. Most wellness clinics promote the practice of Meditation.   Wellness through Meditation relaxes the body, calms the mind and soothes the soul to combat diseases and illness.   Research is also ongoing to find conclusive health benefits of Meditation.   They are optimistic that Mediation may help find cures for certain diseases and medical conditions.   â€Å"Meditation for health purposes is a mind-body practice in complimentary and alternative medicine†¦..   There are many types of Meditation.   A conscious mental process using certain techniques, such as focusing attention or maintaining a specific posture – to suspend the stream of thoughts and relax the mind†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (NCCAM, 2007). As an alternative and complement to conventional medicine, Meditation may be used to heal mind and body maladies.   Health and medical practitioners study the relationship of man’s brain, mind, body and his behavior and their reactions to each other.   They are hoping to use the mind to influence the other body functions.   Some health problems are caused or associated with the emotional, mental, social, spiritual and behavioral state of the individual.   Examples of these ailments are:   anxiety, pain, depression, low self-esteem, mood swings, stress, insomnia and the physical and emotional pain of heart diseases, HIV/AIDS and cancer. Meditation helps patients handle their medical condition better through awareness and acceptance.   While meditating, a person concentrates on his body experience minus the distractions.     Ã‚  The person is allowed to experience the sensation without the deductive reaction.   The body is allowed to calm down, rest and relax. Managing stress, ability to cope, and therapeutic relaxation complement cure for disorders accompanied by pain like arthritis.   In other cases and disorders, prior to surgery, patients are made to undergo relaxation procedures that may lessen pain and shorten recovery time.   Studies continue to find how mind-body interventions may be applied to the psychological part of treating patients with chronic ailments and as well as that in need of palliative care. Meditation is many things to many people, a practice that has been handed down through generations.   It promotes the concept of mind power in combating ailments, in de-stressing, in enhancing one’s spirituality, conquering pain, training the mind and heart to things positive, and self-healing.   The benefits of meditation extend from the spiritual, mental, psychological to the physical circumstances of people.   They have calm, happy, positive and healthy outlook in life. Generally, meditators were transformed and have transcended. References Dharma. (2007). Meditation and Mental Culture.   Retrieved September 9, 2007 Dharma. (2007). The Noble Eight-fold Path.   Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http://dharma.nef.ca/introduction/truths/NobleTruth-4html How to Meditate.Org. (2002-2003). How to Meditate.   Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http://www.how-to-meditate.org/ NCCAM. (2007, August 22). Meditation.   Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/ NCCAM. (2007, August 3). Meditation for Health Purposes. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm NCCAM. (2007, July 13). Mind-Body Medicine: An Overview. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from http://nccam.nih.gov/health/backgrounds/mindbody.htm         

Assessment Project Essay

There are 3 main types of assessment initial, summative & formative. Initial assessments aim is to create a profile of the learner this can be achieved informally by setting questions relating to the learners previous knowledge skills & experience relating to the subject area, or by asking the learner why they have enrolled on the course & what they wish to achieve from it. The more formal method of completing an initial assessment known as a diagnostic assessment this will assist in identifying the learners capabilities, & what support will be needed to be offered to them for successful completion of the programme. On the course I teach which a level 1 chef’s diploma there is a skills test is carried out at the interview. The candidate is asked to cook off an omelette in order to assess his current levels of culinary skills. There are also diagnostic tests carried out relating to functional skills as these run alongside the diploma at various levels, to support the students. The tests allow the students to be placed in the appropriate set in order that they can improve these key skills alongside the diploma during their time at college. According to Petty. G. 2004 this is â€Å"closing the gap as it allows the programme to be moved nearer to the student†. Support tutors are also allocated to each class to assist those students with learning difficulties, for example I have several students in my class with dyslexia & literacy issues. An initial assessment could also be used to produce critical information that needs to go on the students profile at Shrewsbury we are aware of all students preferred learning styles VARKS, this assists us in lesson planning so we deliver our lessons according to the groups preferred learning styles. As the VARKS questionnaire will indicate your preference for taking in & putting out information in a learning context. The questionnaire only consists of 16 questions in order that those who complete the questionnaire are focused. Data produced from the questionnaire so far indicate that men’s preferred learning style is kinaesthetic where as the female learning style preference is reading & writing. As Wilson. l. 2009 states â€Å"many organisations are measured & funded on their success, therefore it is important the right learner is on the right course & receiving the right support. † A through initial assessment will allow this to happen which in the long term will benefit the learner & the education establishment. Formative assessment is assessment throughout the course. The aim of this is to provide feedback to the learner in order that the learner can improve their performance throughout the course in order that they can achieve the maximum grades. As Petty. G. 2004 states† for this to be effective the students should be given a medal which would be achieved by being given positive feedback about an area of their work. The mission is information about what needs improving this should be approached in a constructive manner a mission could be a target for the next piece of work or highlighting areas for improvement on the current piece of work. † Formative assessment which I carry out is by verbal questioning throughout the lesson, often using follow up questions to check the students have acquired knowledge & are not just providing the answers without the reasons behind them. I carry out a lot of questioning at the end of my sessions after I have summarised as well at the start of the next session to confirm the learning points from the last lecture. I also write & give out written tests at the end of the session. Some of these will be short answer questions in order for me to gauge the depth of knowledge the student has about the subject some will require brief explanations . For example explain why it is dangerous to hold hot food below 63 degrees C. I feedback marks to the students, this can also assist me if a majority of students have got the answer wrong I can check their understanding of this area & review my teaching in of this topic area to ensure improved learning takes place next time. The principles of assessment are described by Wilson. L. 2009 with the acronym â€Å"CADET. †Consistency is the first principle all assessments should be at a level standard. The assessments should also be accessible to the learners. Assessments should be detailed & cover all parts of the curriculum & not vary away from it. Learners should have also have earnt their qualifications therefore the qualification will have real meaning & be valid. Finally all those who take part in the process must fully understand it & the desired outcomes thus the process should be transparent. I am aware that short answer question verbal & written do not reveal the depth of the learners knowledge as according to Bloom â€Å"information or a fact can be recalled to mind however the learner will not be able to do anything with the information this is known as shallow learning. † Deep learning according to Bloom is â€Å"to apply the fact to different situations, & to be able to discuss & argue around the fact/ information. † In order to ensure the learning is of a deep nature once the fact has been established secondary questions stating why or can you explain that can be used, this will assist you in assessing the depth of the learners knowledge as a result of your teaching. The same applies to written questions rather than asking what colour fire extinguisher is used on an hot oil fire , which just reveals shallow knowledge it is better to ask â€Å"Why does a yellow fire extinguisher work on a deep fat fire ? †This will cause the learner to reveal his depth of knowledge. I use observation as a form of assessment when I supervise the students who work alongside me in the college refectory. I provide them with feedback at the end of their session. I have also issued them with customer service logs for them to self assess their own performance, they write down how they have handled customer complaints or how they went that extra mile for the customer. I sign these logs off at the end of each session with my comments against their own self assessment. I also use simulation to assess them, I will act as a customer asking for a healthy option or stating I cannot eat garlic do the foods on display contain any garlic, in order to check their product knowledge of what they are serving. At the end of each session in the refectory the students receive a written assessment of their performance from me which they maintain as evidence in their work file. The criterion that I base their performance on is based around the summative assessment that they have to complete as part of their course. I have issued all students with a copy of these criteria in order that they can work on the keys areas of performance. I also feedback to them on areas of shortfall that on the formal assessment day may cause them to fail, in order that they are fully prepared for the assessment. For example if they are late , inappropriately dressed or use their mobile in the work situation. Summative assessment is more formal & is usually associated with tests & exams. The course I teach is a City & Guilds qualification. On completion of each area of the course there is a summative City & Guilds test that the students have to complete. These summative tests take different forms they can be short questions based on work place scenarios, production of a leaflet or an information package relating to the topic that students have just studied. Each assignment is graded by me in line with the City & guilds marking criteria . Samples of my marked work are checked by other tutors to ensure quality control & consistency in marking. City & Guilds also employ an external verifier who will check samples of students work which I have marked. The same principles apply to my practical assessments they are internally & externally verified . I have failed two students on one theory test as I could see from the answers that copying had occurred I was also able to recall that these two students were sitting next to each other. This backs up the comment â€Å"For assessment to work fairly all parties must play the game† Times Education Supplement 2001. I have also failed work on the grounds of plagiarism , I could tell from the language used & the overall standard of work compared to the student’s normal standard of work , that this piece of work was not his own. When marking work I always† comment on good practice first† as stated by Reece I & Walker. S. 2003, this will act as motivation for the student rather than starting on the areas that need improvement. In order to record students progress we have a large master sheet outside the office with all the students names on, a column that indicates the work has been completed & at what grade this means at a quick glance we can monitor how students are progressing as far as grades & completion of course work. We have over 60 students on the course there are 3 tutors including myself who are responsible for maintaining our own records for those we teach . Once we have marked, graded work & fed back to the learners it is placed in a central filing cabinet, where each learner has his own file, which can then be accessed by internal & external verifiers Differentiation should also be taken into account when conducting assessments. I have several students in my group with learning difficulties. There is one who due to literacy issues has difficulty in understanding questions, so when there is a written test I read the questions to him & explain the outcome that the question requires from him. I also plan my questions according to the learner’s abilities using the stretching questions for those students who have a higher academic ability. Other forms of assessment that apply to the teacher are self assessment & peer assessment. During in my time at the college I have already had one peer assessment from my teaching coach. The college also requires you to organise a peer assessment with a teacher from a different vocational area I have organised mine with someone from the finance department. This practice is designed so you can pick up good teaching practice from another area of the college & see the methods used to teach other subjects. I also carry out self evaluations on my sessions in order that I can carry good practice forward & review areas of lessons that did not work, this is very important in my first year of teaching as I am learning a lot on my feet in the classroom. The students have a self assessment exercise within their course. They are asked to work in teams to produce a set menu in the restaurant then write their own critic of how they performed & what their contribution was & how this could be improved. This critique will be marked by the tutor who was present when the practical exercise took place. In summary comprehensive assessment initial, summative & formative is essential throughout the learner’s journey. Students are assessed for a number of reasons which include motivation, to create learning opportunities, to give feedback and to grade from an internal & external point of view. Reference List Reece. I. & Walker. S. (2003) Teaching Training & Learning, 5th Edition, Business Education Publishers, Sunderland,p317 Rage . P. (2001) Times Higher Educational Supplement 2,000 Tips for Lecturers,Routledge, Oxon, p117 Petty. (2004), Teaching Today, 3rd edition, Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham p Wilson. L. (2009),Practical Teaching a guide to PTLLS & DTLLS, Cenage Learning Hampshire.